Our results indicate that vision and olfaction can be used, either independently or in tandem, to stabilize HD cell tuning. Visual signals are believed to enter the HD system via inputs from the visual cortex to the post-subiculum and retrosplenial cortex 12. With respect to olfactory inputs, the pathway into the HD system remains unclear, though direct projections from the olfactory bulb and piriform cortex to the entorhinal cortex 54, 55 could, in turn, reach ADn via post-subiculum, which is reciprocally connected to the entorhinal cortex and ADn 56. Alternatively, olfactory signals could reach the HD system indirectly via the projection of the post-subiculum to the lateral mammillary bodies, which constitute the main subcortical input to the ADn 12. Future studies examining these pathways in more detail in both sighted and blind mice will be required to develop a better understanding of the circuitry involved. Next Pandemic Propaganda: The "Big One," Nipah, Ebola and Marburg, SARS1, Machupo, "Vampire Virus", Disease X where, \(\triangle\)PFD is defined as the change in the preferred firing direction (in degrees) for each HD cell following reintroduction into the arena, and \(\triangle {{{{{{\mathrm{cue}}}}}}\; {{{{{\mathrm{is}}}}}}}\) defined as the extent (either 90° or 180°) that the visual cue was rotated. Floor rotation listo] Expertos plantean temores de salud pública sobre el síndrome de microondas de las antenas 5G Best of the Web: I've studied more than 5,000 near death experiences. My research has convinced me without a doubt that there's life after death

Chaos at Congressional Halloween party: House Republicans all show up wearing identical clown costumes Archaeologists unearthed a pot of copper coins in first major discovery at Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan, in 93 years where dir represents the set of possible angular head directions, and spk represents the spike counts of simultaneously recorded HD cells within a 200 ms time window in this instance. Bayesian decoding was used to predict the HD of animals in the second half of a recording session based on priors generated from tuning curves in the first half. The mean absolute decoding error was computed as the absolute difference between the decoded angle and the actual angle over the decoded time window. Isomap projection Air Force officer breaks silence on 'red, glowing UFO the size of a football field' hovering at low altitude over California space launch baseTo directly test whether olfactory inputs were required for stabilizing HD cell tuning in blind mice, we ablated olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and examined the effect on HD cell tuning. To ablate OSNs, we used a previously established chemical lesioning method 48 (see Methods). To ensure that this method was effective at ablating OSNs and severely impairing olfaction, we developed an olfactory place avoidance task in which a mouse was placed in a two-chamber arena, with one of the chambers housing an aversive olfactory substance (3-methyl-1-butanethiol 49) and the other chamber housing a neutral olfactory substance (distilled H 2O; Fig. 5b; see Methods). Mice with intact OSNs completely avoided the chamber containing the aversive olfactory substance (Fig. 5b, c). In contrast, following OSN ablation, mice showed no preference between the two chambers (Fig. 5b, c). Having established a method to reliably ablate olfaction, we tested the effect of olfactory ablation on HD cell tuning in blind animals. Olfactory ablation resulted in complete loss of HD cell tuning in ADn of blind mice (Fig. 5d, e; we pooled together rd1 and Gnat1/2 mut mice as OSN ablation affected both similarly (Supplementary Fig. 5c, d)). The percent of ADn cells that passed the criteria for being designated as HD cells drastically decreased for blind mice following olfactory ablation (Fig. 5e, Supplementary Fig. 5e, f). For some experiments, whiskers were intact during olfactory ablation, while in other animals, whiskers were ablated prior to olfactory ablation, but in both cases, olfactory ablation resulted in complete loss of HD cell tuning (Supplementary Fig. 5), again indicating that, at least in this experimental paradigm, the vibrissal system was not being used to tune HD cells. These results show that blind mice use olfactory cues to anchor their HD system. The brain has dedicated systems for generating spatial awareness and guiding spatial navigation. In rodents, some of the most studied components of the brain’s spatial awareness system include place cells 2, grid cells 8, and head direction cells 9—although other complementary spatially-tuned cells also exist 7. To examine the effect of vision loss on part of the brain’s spatial navigation system, we decided to focus on head direction (HD) cells in the anterior dorsal nucleus (ADn) of the thalamus, where the spike rate of a majority of neurons is modulated by head direction 10, 11, but the stability of the system following vision loss has not been explored. To assess floor-controlled changes in PFDs of HD cells, a protocol similar to the visual cue rotation described above was adopted, except where the floor of the arena was rotated. For these experiments, to avoid possible interference of odor markings across different animals, a brand new floor was used for each mouse. At the same time, to give mice the opportunity to use olfactory odors on the floor, the floor of the arena was not cleaned between exposures. The extent to which floor rotations influenced the PFD of HD cells across animals was computed using Eq. ( 1). For cue/floor rotation sessions, 10,000 shuffles were generated using re-exposure sessions where animals were re-exposed to the same environment in the absence of any manipulation. To generate the gain values expected by chance, the gain was computed after randomly applying the experimental cue/floor rotation angles to the re-exposure data. Olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) ablation

Outside the HD cell system, a recent study has shown that spatial maps can be found in the piriform cortex during a spatial-olfactory learning task, with spatially encoding piriform cortex cells being linked to hippocampal theta 37. Another recent study found that olfactory cues can modulate place cell responses in the hippocampus and aid in path integration 36. Consistent with these findings, earlier studies in rats found intact place cells in blind animals 59, as well as a contribution of olfactory inputs to place cell stability 60. Therefore, seeing as olfactory inputs can enable robust and stable place cell and HD cell coding in the brain, olfaction needs to be considered an important sensory system for the generation of cognitive maps. Working on a branch of physics called supersymmetry, Dr. James Gates Jr., discovered what he describes as the presence of what appear to resemble a form of computer code, called error correcting codes, embedded within, or resulting from, the equations of supersymmetry that describe fundamental particles. Aside from visual and olfactory inputs, our results rule out a contribution of vibrissal signals in stabilizing HD cell tuning within our specific experimental environment, consistent with recent findings from the somatosensory cortex 38. Nonetheless, one can imagine that in a different environmental context (e.g., where the walls or object contours provide useful spatial information) that the vibrissal system could possibly affect HD cell tuning. Next, since our experiments were done in the presence of white noise, we did not directly test possible auditory control of HD cell tuning. As such, future studies will be required to test for the possible use of auditory cues in stabilizing HD cell tuning in blind mice, though previous work in blindfolded rats suggests that auditory cues do not exert a strong effect on HD cell tuning 31. However, it should be noted that a recent study found that some mice can echolocate 53. Olfaction, HD cell tuning, and cognitive maps When we paint a picture or model a three dimensional object using computer software, all the instructions are processed by the CPU and its counterparts before they are projected onto the screen. This process happens almost instantaneously, and it shows that instructions are processed by the CPU before they are used to create the computer generated object. In a sense, our picture or three dimensional model is nothing more than a perception of the CPU. Contraceptives may slow brain development and increase risk-taking behavior in teens, study suggestsBest of the Web: Ancient Sumerians invented water flumes thousands of years earlier than previously thought Coronavirus fragments can persist in the body of a person for up to a year: an estimated 65 million people worldwide suffer from the consequences Upon placing blind adult rd1 mice in the open-field environment, we found robust HD cell tuning (Fig. 1b; n = 151 HD cells recorded from 13 animals, with 80.7% of recorded cells in ADn defined as HD cells; see Methods). Similar to what has been described for sighted animals, we found that rd1 mice evenly sampled all angular directions in the environment and possessed HD cells that exhibited preferred firing directions that spanned all head directions (Fig. 1c). The Jews and Boris Johnson: Zelensky's top political ally looking for scapegoats as Ukrainian elites begin to accept the war is lost Gates explains, " This unsuspected connection suggests that these codes may be ubiquitous in nature, and could even be embedded in the essence of reality. If this is the case, we might have something in common with the Matrix science-fiction films, which depict a world where everything human being's experience is the product of a virtual-reality-generating computer network."

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Full size image The vibrissal system is not required for head direction cell tuning in blind animals in the open-field environment The idea that we live in a holographic universe is very real. With the invention of quantum computers, physicists should soon be able to prove this beyond a reasonable doubt. So, what does it mean that we live in a holographic universe generated by some kind of quantum computer? It means that the Universe was created by an intelligent creator, and therefore it was not created by accident. In other words, the Prime Creator exists! We next tested the stability of HD cells in blind mice and the extent to which their HD cell network was able to reliably encode head direction. First, we found that the preferred direction of HD cells remained stable over a single 10 min recording session (Fig. 1d), and across repeated exposure to the same arena (Fig. 1e), with levels of stability similar to what we found for sighted animals in the light (Supplementary Fig. 1). Next, we examined whether the HD cell network in ADn of blind mice was providing a reliable readout of the animal’s head direction by performing a decoding analysis 41, 42. We found that simultaneously recorded cells provided robust and stable decoding of HD (Fig. 1f). Therefore, in blind rd1 mice, HD cells are highly tuned and provide an accurate readout of head direction.